Research in Strength and Performance (ISSN: 3069-0765) is an open access, peer-reviewed journal. The journal encourages authors to submit basic and applied research in strength and conditioning and all aspects of sports performance.
Copyright, 2026 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The Effects of a Training Belt on Performance and Perceptual Outcomes during Explosive Deadlift Exercise
Introduction: Training belts are commonly used by competitive and recreational lifters during heavy-load resistance exercise for support. While training belts have been reported to increase intra-abdominal pressure and spine stabilization, it is less clear if training belts influence performance and perceptual measures during explosive deadlift exercise at loads commonly used for hypertrophy training. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a training belt on perceptual and performance measures during explosive dead-lift exercise. Methods: Resistance-trained individuals participated in a crossover counterbalanced study design with 3 conditions: 1) No TB (NB), 2) Sham belt (SHAM; loose belt), 3) Tight training-belt (TB). Under each condition, participants completed 3 sets of explosive deadlift exercise at 70% 1-RM. Barbell velocity was monitored for each repetitions using a linear position transducer. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE), confidence, and feelings stability were assessed after each set using visual analog scales. Each trial was separated by 48 hours. Results: Findings show that barbell velocity was significantly higher during the TB condition versus NB (p=0.025) and SHAM (p=0.037). RPE was lower during the TB condition compared to NB (p=0.016). Feelings of confidence (p=0.005) and stability (p=0.007) were higher with the TB condition versus NB. Conclusions: Results suggest that tight training belts provide ergogenic effects towards explosive deadlift performance at submaximal loads and provide improved perceptions of stability and confidence.
Copyright (c) 2026 Haley Nguyen, Zachary Ervin, Ryan Webb, Nicholas Washmuth, Shelby Osburn, Christopher Ballmann https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Longitudinal Analysis of Training Load Across Two Competitive Seasons in Collegiate Women’s Soccer
Introduction: Monitoring training load is essential for optimizing performance and supporting long-term adaptation in team sport athletes. While heart rate and GPS technologies are widely used in applied settings, limited longitudinal data exist describing how internal and external load interact across multiple seasons in collegiate women’s soccer. Methods: A retrospective longitudinal cohort design was used to examine NCAA Division II women’s soccer athletes monitored across the 2023 and 2024 competitive seasons. Internal training load was assessed using heart rate–derived metrics from a FirstBeat monitoring system, including Training Impulse (TRIMP), average and maximal heart rate, and percentage of time spent above 85% HRmax. External load was quantified using GPS measures, including total distance, high-speed running distance, sprint count, sprint distance, and work rate. Data from training sessions and matches were aggregated by season. Linear mixed effects models evaluated seasonal differences with the athlete treated as a random effect. Results: Internal training load remained stable across seasons, with no significant differences in mean session TRIMP (2023: 308.0 ± 74.6 AU; 2024: 309.7 ± 71.2 AU; p = 0.68) or average exercise intensity (71.2 ± 6.4 vs. 71.5 ± 6.1% HRmax; p = 0.61). In contrast, match play imposed substantially greater external demands than training in both seasons (p < 0.001), with large to very large effect sizes across all GPS variables. Despite increased external demands, the TRIMP to distance ratio decreased from 64.1 to 57.2 TRIMP/mile⁻¹, indicating improved physiological efficiency. Conclusions: Collegiate women’s soccer athletes demonstrated stable internal load despite large competition demands, supporting effective long-term load regulation and adaptation. Integrating heart rate and GPS metrics provides a comprehensive framework for monitoring training stress and informing evidence-based periodization strategies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Victor Romano, Dr. Jennifer McCrae https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Swearing Enhances Explosive Performance and Psychological Responses during Resistance Exercise
Introduction: Anecdotally, the use of swearing during training is practiced by athletes and recreational exercisers alike, but it is currently unknown if swearing imparts performance benefits during explosive resistance exercise. The purpose of this study was to determine if swearing improves performance and psychological responses to explosive resistance exercise. Methods: In a counterbalanced crossover manner, resistance-trained males (n=11) completed two bench press exercise trials each with a different language condition: 1) Neutral word (NEU), 2) Swear word (SWR). Participants vocalized the corresponding language condition as loud as possible immediately before each exercise attempt. For the bench press exercise, participants completed 1 set × 2 repetitions at 75% of 1-Repetition Maximum (1-RM) as explosively as possible followed by 3 sets × Repetitions to failure (RTF) at 75% 1-RM separated by 2-minutes of rest. Motivation and psychological arousal were subjectively measured post-exercise. Results: Findings show that RTF (p=0.105; d=0.48) did not differ between conditions, but barbell velocity was significantly higher with SWR versus NEU (p=0.004; d=1.11). Motivation (p=0.007; d=1.05) and psychological arousal (p=0.002; d=1.32) were higher with SWR versus NEU. Conclusions: Current findings suggest that vocalizing a SWR prior to attempting maximal effort may improve motivational responses and explosive exercise performance but does not influence strength-endurance.
Copyright (c) 2026 Christopher Ballmann, Zachary Morrison, Haley Nguyen, Nicholas Washmuth, Shelby Osburn, Ryan Webb, Christian Wilkerson https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness: A Prediction Error
Delayed-onset muscle soreness is a common and well-researched phenomenon among exercising populations, whose symptoms can impair movement quality and subsequent participation in activities. Traditional explanations have focused mostly on tissue and cellular damage and the body’s inflammatory responses. This has led to many hypotheses that often do not fully agree with one another or adequately capture the complexity of the matter. Principles of evolutionary biology have previously been applied to phenomena in exercise science and seem well-suited to interpreting this issue. This brief review introduces a unifying theoretical framework that shifts the perspective from mainly tissue- and cellular-level explanations to centrally mediated predictive processes, incorporating principles from evolutionary biology and predictive processing theory.
Copyright (c) 2026 Christopher Hunt https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Physiological and Anthropometric Changes in a Recreational Cyclist Preparing for the Tour de France Route: A Case Study
Introduction: To examine longitudinal changes in aerobic fitness, anaerobic performance, neuromuscular function, flexibility, and body composition in a recreational cyclist preparing to complete the 2025 Tour de France course. Methods: A male recreational cyclist (48 years of age) underwent physiological and musculoskeletal assessments in November 2024, January 2025, and June 2025 during an eight-month training period leading up to the completion of the 2025 Tour de France racecourse starting on June 28th, 2025. One month following the race, aerobic power was also reassessed. Measurements included maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), anaerobic power, grip strength, vertical jump height, flexibility, body mass, and limb muscle thickness. Percent changes were calculated. Results: VO₂max increased from 43.9 to 54.5 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. From January to June, anaerobic peak power increased by 4.2% (839 to 874 Watts), while grip strength (95 to 115 kg; 21.1%) and vertical jump height (15.5 to 17 inches; 9.7%) revealed substantial neuromuscular adaptation. Body mass decreased slightly (−0.8%), while modest increases in muscle thickness were observed (0.2–3.1%). Flexibility remained largely unchanged. Conclusions: This case study demonstrates marked aerobic and neuromuscular adaptations in a recreational cyclist preparing for an extreme endurance challenge. Training to complete a professional-level race route elicited significant improvements in physiological capacity, highlighting the adaptability of non-elite athletes to high-volume endurance training. The recreational cyclist successfully completed all 21 stages of the Tour de France racecourse, cycling 3409 km with an elevation gain of over 50,585 meters, and burned an estimated 86,478 kcals.
Copyright (c) 2026 Scott Forbes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Grass-Fed and Non-Grass-Fed Whey Protein Supplementation and High-Intensity Eccentric Exercise Do Not Affect Arterial Stiffness and Systemic Hemodynamics in Resistance-Trained Individuals
Introduction: Dairy products from pasture-raised grass-fed cows are known for their higher anti-inflammatory and antioxidant content, which may enhance vascular modulation compared to products from grain-fed cows. Given that eccentric muscle loading (EML) and the resulting exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) may temporarily disrupt vascular homeostasis, this study tested the hypothesis that whey protein from pasture-raised grass-fed cows (PRWP) would improve markers of vascular recovery compared to conventional whey protein (CWP) or a non-protein control (NPC). Methods: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was used to test 39 resistance-trained participants (66% male, PRWP, n = 14; CWP, n = 12; NPC, n = 13). EIMD was induced via an eccentric barbell back squat protocol, followed by vascular assessments (peripheral/central blood pressure and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity using applanation tonometry) at 24, 48, and 72 hours post-EML. Results: No between-group differences in blood pressure or vascular measures were observed pre-EML. However, a significant interaction was observed 48 hours post-EML, with diastolic blood pressure (DBP) elevated in the PRWP group (PRWP, 77 ± 11 mm Hg; CWP, 66 ± 9 mm Hg; NPC, 67 ± 10 mm Hg; P = 0.011). Pulse wave velocity did not differ significantly between groups (P = 0.598), visit (P = 0.753), or group-by-visit interaction (P = 0.418). No additional differences in blood pressure or vascular assessments were observed post-EML. Conclusions: Unexpectedly, PRWP increased DBP 48 hours post-EML, without any observed benefit in vascular recovery markers. Participants' training backgrounds may have reduced the sensitivity to detect EML-induced vascular disruptions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Matthew J. Barenie, Stephen J. Carter , Albaro Escalera, Hope E. Grange, Zachary J. Schlader , Alyce D. Fly, Timothy D. Mickleborough https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Resistance Training to Mitigate Sarcopenia in Menopausal Women
Introduction: Menopause is associated with hormonal changes that contribute to declines in skeletal muscle mass, strength, and functional capacity. Resistance training (RT) is a widely recommended non-pharmacological strategy to mitigate sarcopenia and support musculoskeletal health in peri- and postmenopausal women. This short narrative review summarizes recent evidence on resistance training interventions in peri- and postmenopausal women, with emphasis on muscle strength, body composition, and functional performance outcomes. Methods: A narrative literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus to identify peer-reviewed studies published between 2019 and 2025 examining resistance training interventions in peri- and postmenopausal women. Due to heterogeneity in study designs, intervention protocols, and outcome measures, findings were synthesized qualitatively rather than quantitatively. Results: Across the reviewed literature, resistance training was consistently associated with improvements in muscular strength, preservation or modest increases in lean mass, reductions in fat mass, and enhanced functional performance. Most studies reported moderate-to-large strength improvements and favorable neuromuscular adaptations when resistance training programs were progressive and sustained for at least eight weeks. Resistance training was well tolerated, with no serious adverse events reported. Conclusions: Current evidence supports resistance training as a safe and effective intervention to counteract menopause-related declines in muscle strength and function. Structured and individualized resistance training programs should be prioritized to promote healthy aging and functional independence in peri- and postmenopausal women.
menopause, neuromuscular performance, sarcopenia
Sarcopenia, Menopause, Resistance Training
Copyright (c) 2026 Joy I. Kagendo, Brenda Watson https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Differences Between Perceived and Recommended Nutritional Needs Among Three Division I Female Sports Teams
Introduction: This study evaluated the discrepancy between perceived and recommended nutritional needs among NCAA Division I female athletes (soccer, softball, and volleyball). While proper nutrition is vital for performance, many athletes lack the knowledge to meet guidelines. This research specifically investigated whether these knowledge gaps vary by sport. Methods: Fifty-six athletes completed surveys of their perceived daily requirements for total calories, protein, carbohydrates, and fats. Perceived needs were then compared against American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) for low, medium, and high activity levels. Researchers calculated difference scores and utilized repeated measures ANOVAs to identify discrepancies based on sport and intensity. Results: A significant main effect of activity level existed across all nutrients (p < .001, η²p = 0.984) showing that discrepancies between perceived and recommended intakes worsened as training intensity increased. While interactions between activity level and sport were significant for all metrics (p < .001), specific differences between soccer, softball, and volleyball were minimal. Follow-up tests for kilocalories and protein showed general sport effects at various activity levels, but Tukey-adjusted pairwise comparisons were not significant. For carbohydrates and fats, no sport-specific effects were detected. Essentially, athletes across all sports consistently struggled to accurately estimate their increasing nutritional demands. Conclusions: Overall, the findings suggest a need for targeted nutrition education in sports where athletes tend to underestimate their dietary requirements.
Copyright (c) 2026 Shelley Holden, Matthew T. Stratton, J. Ray Davis, Austin T. Massengale, Jarrett Strate-Lutzow https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
American Football Position Does Not Influence Symmetry in Joint Power During High-Speed Running
Introduction: The distinct physical and tactical roles of American football positions may influence interlimb symmetry of ankle, knee, and hip power distribution during high-speed running. This study examined differences in joint power distribution symmetry between position groups and joints using inverse dynamics. Methods: Sixty-eight draft-eligible American football players (Big n=18; Big-skill n=24; Skill n=26) completed a single high-speed running trial (6.4 m/s) on an instrumented treadmill synchronized with a motion capture system. Joint powers were computed via inverse dynamics and expressed as positive (generation) and negative (absorption) percent contributions to total limb power. Interlimb differences were quantified using the Asymmetry Index (AI = |left−right|/[(left+right)/2] ×100%). Group differences were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis tests with Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons (α = .017). Results: No significant differences in AI were found among position groups for positive ankle (p = .868), knee (p = .082), or hip power (p = .846), nor for negative ankle (p = .222), knee (p = .181), or hip power (p = .496). AI differed significantly among joints for both positive (F(2,134)=33.4, p<.001, η²=0.332) and negative power (F(2,134)=15.7, p<.001, η²=0.19). Knee AI was highest for positive power (31.9 ± 24.5%), followed by hip (18.1 ± 28.9%) and ankle (9.6 ± 6.9%). Negative AI was lowest at the ankle (11.9 ± 14.1%) compared to knee (22.4 ± 16.6%) and hip (22.8 ± 19.5%). Conclusions: Player position does not influence the symmetry of joint power contributions during high-speed running. The ankle demonstrates the greatest symmetry, whereas the knee shows the largest asymmetry.
Copyright (c) 2026 Monique Mokha, Antonio Crisanti, Pete Bommarito https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Dual V̇O2plateau Method for Confirming V̇O2max Validity in Trained Female Runners
Introduction: Breath-by-breath (BxB) data in modern metabolic carts exhibit high variability and are rarely filtered. With sampling intervals (SI) ≤30-s commonly incorporated, not accounting for outlier breaths can greatly inflate maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max) and reduce robustness. Purpose: this study attempted to address these issues by demonstrating that positive BxB outliers from unfiltered 30-s SI (V̇O2max30) wouldn’t differ in a meaningful (d≤0.15) way from 60-s SI (V̇O2max60), and 15-s SI (V̇O2max15) would increase in a significant enough fashion (d≥0.20) to be deemed a non-preferred SI. A novel, dual V̇O2plateau model was then created using ΔV̇O2max60-V̇O2max30 and ΔV̇O2max60-V̇O2non-max60 to form simple and objective sex-specific criterion guidelines for validation of V̇O2max60 assessment. Methods: Unfiltered BxB averages from the last 2-min of a graded exercise test to exhaustion were collected from female NCAA Division I cross-country runners (n=14). Results: V̇O2max60 and V̇O2max30 differed statistically but trivially from each other (2.91±0.28 vs 2.94±0.29 L/min; d=0.11). The differences between V̇O2max15 (3.01±0.33 L/min) and V̇O2max30 (d=0.23) and V̇O2max60 (d=0.33) were meaningful, confirming our hypotheses. Furthermore, four V̇O2max15 occurred before the final 2 min. V̇O2max60-V̇O2max30 (±0.05 L/min; <1%) and V̇O2max60-V̇O2non-max60 (±0.08 L/min; 1.60%) exhibited tight Bland-Altman 95% levels of agreement and coefficient of variation. V̇O2max60 validity can be confirmed using criteria of a dual V̇O2plateau model of Δ ≤0.08 L/min for ΔV̇O2max60-V̇O2max30 and Δ ≤0.15 L/min for ΔV̇O2max60-V̇O2non-max60. Conclusions: These simple guidelines can replace more subjective secondary confirmation markers to increase confidence in V̇O2max outcomes and determine need for verification testing without having to filter BxB data.
14 female NCAA Division I cross-country runners
Copyright (c) 2026 Savanna Knight , Eric Scudamore, Lynnsey Bowling, Veronika Scudamore, Hunter Waldman, Eric O'Neal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effect of Accentuated Eccentric Loading on Concentric Performance Characteristics of the Jump Shrug Exercise
Introduction: Resistance training loads are often derived from concentric 1RM, despite higher force production capabilities during eccentrics. Accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) allows heavier eccentric loading and may potentiate concentric performance. This study examined the effect of AEL on jump shrug (JS) performance. Methods: Recreationally trained males (n=15, X̅±SD; age=22.5±2.8 yrs, height=177.0±7.5 cm, body mass=87.6±14.2 kg) performed the JS at varying percentages of body mass (20-120%) with and without AEL. Weight releasers added an additional 20% body mass during the eccentric phase of the AEL condition. All repetitions were performed on a force platform. Peak force, rate of force development (RFD), impulse, and impulse duration were compared between AEL conditions. Results: Peak force, RFD, and impulse were not different between AEL and non-AEL (p=0.052-0.77). Observed differences were primarily driven by load, with lower peak force during the 20% load, when compared to 60-80% (p=0.004-0.007, g=1.14-1.20). Greater RFD was observed in lighter loads, with 20% greater than 60-120% (p=<0.001-0.003, g=1.28-2.29), 40% greater than 80-120% (p<0.001, g=1.95-3.22), and 60-80% greater than 100-120% (p=<0.001-0.007, g=1.14-1.87). Impulse during 20% was lower than 40-80% (p=<0.001-0.001, g=1.37-1.66), with 80% being greater than 120% (p=0.041, g=0.91). When collapsing across loads, impulse duration was shorter during AEL (p=0.007, g=0.80). Conclusions: In the current study, AEL minimally influenced JS performance. While shorter impulse duration was observed with AEL, it is unclear if AEL potentiated JS performance or if AEL influenced eccentric displacement. Observed differences were primarily driven by load. Practitioners should understand how load influences JS kinetics.
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Matthew J. Hermes, Dr. Andrew C. Fry https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effect of Verbal Encouragement with Swearing on High Intensity Exercise Performance
Introduction: Verbal encouragement has not been shown to reliably enhance performance on the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT); however, research has found that when individuals swear during the WAnT, average power increases. This study examined whether incorporating swearing into verbal encouragement during a WAnT enhances performance, self-confidence, and psychological flow compared to standard verbal encouragement without swearing. Methods: Forty-one physically active participants (25 females, 16 males; age 20.8 ± 0.78 years) completed two counterbalanced laboratory visits involving verbal encouragement with swearing (VES) and without swearing (VE) while performing the WanT on a Wattbike Air ergometer. Average power, fatigue index, self-confidence, and psychological flow were measured. Results: No main effect of condition was found for average power (p = 0.071), self-confidence (p = 0.376) or flow (p = 0.414). However, a significant condition by sex interaction emerged for average power (p = 0.01, η²p = 0.16). Males exhibited lower average power under the VES condition compared to VE, whereas females showed no difference. Males also reported higher self-confidence than females overall (p = 0.049). Conclusions: Verbal encouragement that included swearing did not enhance WAnT performance, self-confidence, or flow. Instead, male participants’ performance declined when a female researcher provided VES. Guided by the Social Identity Theory, these results suggest that the motivational impact of verbal encouragement may depend on the social identity alignment between the encourager and the receiver. When swearing violates gender norms or expectations, it may heighten self-consciousness and inhibit performance rather than enhance it.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nicholas Washmuth, Lia Jiannine, Lindsey Davis, Christopher Ballmann https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A 4-Beat Kick Frequency May Optimize Consistency and Efficiency in 800 Meter Freestyle Swim Performance
Introduction: This exploratory study examined the effects of kick frequency (KF) on performance, biomechanical, physiological, and psychophysiological variables to determine optimal performance in an 800 m long course freestyle swim. Methods: Six international-level swimmers completed 5 x 100 m pacing efforts at 2-, 4-, and 6-beat KF. Multiple one-way repeated measures ANOVAs compared effects of KF on target time coefficient of variation (TTCV), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), heart rate (HR), caloric energy expenditure (EE), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE). Results: A significant KF effect was found for RPE [F(2,10) = 17.143, p = .009, η2 = .774]. RPE was greater in the 6-beat (14.43 ± 1.85) vs. 4-beat (12.03 ± 0.64; p = .027) and 2-beat (11.23 ± 1.78; p = .024) KF. The effect of KF on TTCV was significant [F(2,10) = 4.090, p = 0.050, η²p = 0.450], but while the 4-beat KF demonstrated the lowest mean variability, the sensitivity of pairwise comparisons failed to detect where significance lay. No significant effects were found for HR, EE, SR, or SL (p > .05). Conclusions: Coaches may consider the 4-beat KF as a hybrid advantage since it requires less metabolic cost than the 6-beat KF, allows for higher velocity without a proportional increase in EE or RPE, promotes pacing consistency, and provides an efficient balance between SL and SR.
Copyright (c) 2026 Bethany S. Weber, Monique Mokha https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Ultrasound Echo Intensity of the Rectus Femoris Correlates Muscle Strength in the Post-Operative Rehabilitation of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Introduction: To assess the correlation between corrected rectus femoris echo intensity (C-RF-EI), rectus femoris cross-sectional area (RF-CSA), and quadriceps strength during a 6-month period after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACL-R). Methods: A retrospective subanalysis of data collected in a randomized controlled clinical trial (IRB 19-008473. NCT ID NCT04302558). Twenty-eight patients aged 13 to 50 years undergoing ACL-R were assessed for C-RF-EI, RF-CSA, and quadriceps strength. Results: The correlation (R) between C-RF-EI and RF-CSA after ACL-R ranged from −0.25 (24 weeks after ACL-R) to −0.34 (4 weeks after ACL-R), which is indicative of a negative linear association. The overall repeated measures correlation was −0.31 (P<.001). The correlation between C-RF-EI and isometric knee extensor strength at each time point ranged from −0.11 (4 and 8 weeks after ACL-R) to −0.41 (2 weeks before ACL-R), which suggests a weakly negative linear association. The overall repeated measures correlation was −0.21 (P=.01). C-RF-EI, RF-CSA, and knee extensor strength significantly differed with time after ACL-R (all P<.001). In comparison with 24 to 28 hours before ACL-R, postoperative C-RF-EI increased, and RF-CSA decreased. Conclusions: These findings suggest that C-RF-EI is a feasible method for evaluating RF-CSA after ACL-R but not an effective method for evaluating progression of quadriceps strength.
Copyright (c) 2026 Daniel McGurren, Kaycee Glattke, Jedediah Lee, Sayi Boddu, Molly Klanderman, Anikar Chhabra, Jason De Luigi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Palm Cooling Between Sets Reduces Perceived Exertion Without Enhancing Performance During High-Load Deadlifts
Introduction: This study investigated the effects of inter-set palm cooling on performance, physiological, and perceptual responses during high-load deadlift exercise. Methods: Twelve resistance-trained males (age: 20.6 ± 1.4 years) completed two randomized, counterbalanced experimental sessions involving repeated sets of hex bar deadlifts at 95% of their estimated 5-RM. During rest intervals, participants either sat passively without a device (no palm cooling; NPC) or held a commercially available palm cooling device (palm cooling; PC). Performance metrics (total volume, bar velocity, power, and force), physiological responses (heart rate, core and skin temperature), and perceptual measures (RPE, affect, thermal comfort, and perceived recovery) were recorded. Results: No significant differences were observed between PC and NPC conditions for performance or physiological outcomes (p>0.05). Although not statistically significant, PC resulted in greater total volume (+15%), partial (concentric-phase) power (+4%), and peak force (+5%). Perceptual responses differed significantly, with PC producing lower RPE (p=0.049), higher affect (p=0.049), and improved thermal comfort (p=0.002), but unexpectedly lower perceived recovery between sets (p=0.001). Conclusions: PC did not significantly enhance performance or physiological recovery during high-load deadlifts but improved perceptual responses, supporting the hypothesis that PC may modulate central sensory feedback during exercise. These findings suggest PC may be especially useful during high-intensity resistance training in hot environments or for athletes sensitive to thermal strain.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jeff Buxton, Jonny Aloi, Ryan Hersey, Hunter Presgrave, Stewart McClain, Nico Flati, Hayden Gerhart, Philip Prins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Trained Runners Need Lower Respiratory Exchange Ratio Criterion During Graded Exercise Tests
Introduction: A respiratory exchange ratio peak (RERpeak) of ≥1.10 is widely utilized as a secondary confirmation marker that maximal effort was achieved and a valid graded exercise tests (GXT) was conducted. However, this threshold may not be appropriate for trained runners. This study characterized National Collegiate Athletics Association Division I (n=30; female=14) cross-country runners’ ability to reach the ≥1.10 criterion with respect to both sex and sampling interval (SI) duration. Methods: Unfiltered RERpeak were determined during the last two minutes of a GXT in sampling intervals of 15-, 30-, and 60-s with strong vocal encouragement. Results: There were no differences between sexes regardless of SI, but whole cohort RERpeak values were statistically significant (p < 0.05) among all SI (mean ± SEM: RERpeak15 = 1.081 ± 0.007; RERpeak30 = 1.073 ± 0.007; RERpeak60 = 1.065 ± 0.007). Overwhelmingly runners failed to reach an RERpeak ≥1.10 for RERpeak15 (63.3%), RERpeak30 (66.7%) and RERpeak60 (70%). V̇O2peak30 and RERpeak30 were not related for female (r = 0.36; p = 0.21) or male (r = -0.07; p = 0.81) runners. Conclusions: Either current RERpeak guidelines are not low enough to prevent mass secondary confirmation marker misclassifications or approximately two-thirds of participants terminated their GXT without giving maximal effort. If the former is believed, an RERpeak30 threshold of ≥ 1.03 would have classified all but one participant as having exerted maximal effort. This may be a more suitable cut-off point to confirm GXT validity in high-training volume, competitive female and male runners with V̇O2peaks ≥ ~50 and 60 ml/kg/min, respectively.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lynnsey R. Bowling, Savanna N. Knight, Eric M. Scudamore, Hunter S. Waldman, Veronika Scudamore, Eric K. O'Neal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Acute Effects of Blood Flow Restriction on Blood Lactate Concentration During an Exercise Bout
Introduction: Does low-intensity, acute resistance exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) elicit a similar blood lactate response as high-intensity exercise without BFR? Methods: Participants (N = 12; 22 ± 3 years old) attended three visits. The first visit estimated participants' three-repetition maximum (3-RM) for right knee extension. At visits two and three, participants' blood lactate response was measured using a 1-RM percentage, counter-balancing BFR (37% 1-RM, 60% arterial occlusion pressure (AOP)) and non-BFR conditions (65% 1-RM). Baseline blood pressure and blood lactate were measured before the warm-up. Blood lactate response was measured at immediate post-exercise and two minutes post-exercise. Results: A two-way repeated measures ANOVA found no main effect of treatment (BFR, non-BFR), F(1, 9) = .470, p < .510, but a difference over time, F(2,18) = 23.294, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis with a Bonferroni adjustment indicates that blood lactate concentration increased from baseline to immediate post-exercise (p = .003) and from baseline to two minutes post-exercise (p = .001). Conclusions: Blood lactate concentrations were similar for knee extension with BFR at 60% AOP and 37% 1-RM, and non-BFR at 65% 1-RM groups. However, blood lactate concentration increased from baseline to post-exercise measures while working at 65% of 1-RM with BFR at 60% AOP.
knee extensors, rehabilitation, exercise response, isokinetic dynamometer
Copyright (c) 2025 Foster Dunn, Logan Evans, Hutson Milligan, Wheeler Stoker, Sara Harper https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Resistance Training vs. Hormone Replacement Therapy: Can Training Offset Perimenopausal Hormonal Shifts?
Perimenopause is a hormonally dynamic transition characterized by erratic declines in 17-β-estradiol, leading to a wide array of physiological and psychosocial symptoms that can significantly impact quality of life. While hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is effective for many, it is not a viable option for all due to medical contraindications and potential risks. This commentary explores resistance training (RT) as a non-pharmacological alternative for managing perimenopausal symptoms. RT has demonstrated benefits in mitigating metabolic dysfunction, improving mood and cognitive health, and potentially alleviating vasomotor symptoms through mechanisms that partially mimic estrogen’s effects. Despite these promising outcomes, RT remains underrepresented in perimenopausal research compared to other exercise modalities. Future studies are needed to assess the effectiveness of RT alone and in combination with HRT to better inform evidence-based strategies for improving female health during this critical life stage.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr. Antonella V. Schwarz, Anna L. Oelmann, Dr. Alyssa L. Parten https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Does Load Matter? The Effects of Training Load on Injury and Illness in Division I Female Soccer Players
Introduction: The purpose of this study was to measure and examine the relationship between training load and the occurrence of injury and illness in collegiate women's soccer players during one competitive season. Methods: Collegiate women’s soccer players (n=24, ages 18-22) participated in data collection over one competitive season (13 weeks). Polar Team Pro GPS were used to measure heart rate and training load, while injury and illnesses were recorded and scored by the team athletic trainer. Welch’s ANOVA was used to compare group means of training load across injury and illness groups. Results: Welch’s ANOVA suggested that training load did not show a statistically significant difference in injury/illness outcome means across the groups and no effect was detected, F (2, 732) = 2.996, p = 0.05, η2 = .004. Conclusions: Training load did not have a significant association with the occurrence of injury and illness in collegiate women’s soccer athletes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Corbit Franks, Lara Barkesdale, Kaitlyn Armstrong, Jangwoo Jo, Tyler Myers, Tom Andre, Melinda W Valliant, Chip Wade https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Advancements in Running Shoe Technology: The Impact of Carbon Fiber Plates
Recent advancements in running shoe technology have led to increased utilization of carbon fiber plates (CFP) in running shoe construction. This review aims to investigate the literature to shed light on the relationship between carbon fiber plate design and running performance, running economy, biomechanics and risk of injury. A literature search was completed, and ten relevant articles were reviewed. The findings suggest that CFPs alter biomechanics of the lower extremity and may enhance running economy under specific conditions. Results remain inconsistent and some studies reported no significant improvements in running economy, metabolic cost or performance. Biomechanical alterations, including changes in plantar pressure distribution and muscle-tendon unit function, indicate potential implications for injury risk. Further research is necessary to investigate the impact of CFP design on running economy, biomechanics, performance and risk of injury.
carbon fiber plates, longitudinal bending stiffness, midsole, running performance, running economy, biomechanics
Copyright (c) 2025 Kelsy Hill https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring Implications of Hormonal Influences on Muscle Function and Training Performance
Understanding the impact of menstrual cycle-related hormonal fluctuations on muscle function is critical for optimizing female strength and performance. Estrogen and progesterone influence neuromuscular efficiency, muscle contraction, and recovery, yet research findings remain inconsistent. Estrogen, particularly in the late follicular phase, enhances neuromuscular efficiency, force production, and recovery, while progesterone, dominant in the luteal phase, may contribute to increased fatigue and slower contraction velocities. These physiological variations suggest that periodized training based on menstrual cycle phases could improve strength, power, and recovery outcomes. High-intensity resistance training may be most effective in the follicular phase, whereas lower-intensity or recovery-focused sessions may be beneficial during the luteal phase. However, variability in individual responses highlights the need for personalized training strategies. Future research should incorporate precise hormonal profiling and neuromuscular assessments to refine evidence-based periodization models, ultimately supporting female athletes in maximizing performance and reducing injury risk.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rebekah Carpenter https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Influence of Aerobic Exercise Training on Adipokine Concentrations in Obese Men
The rise of obesity and physical inactivity has elicited changes in body composition that negatively influence adipokine concentrations. While literature is limited to the vast majority of adipokines, several have been shown to play key roles in metabolism and inflammatory pathways. As a result, various comorbidities (e.g., hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, sarcopenia) have become more prevalent in individuals who possess an overabundance of adipose tissue. This may be attributed to the increase of pro-inflammatory adipokines as adipose tissue increases. However, some recent interventions have gained popularity [e.g., resistance training, aerobic exercise training (AET), nutrition] and have been shown to be effective in improving body composition in obese populations. More recently, studies have shown resistance training could be effective at improving pro- and anti-inflammatory adipokine concentrations and regulation (e.g., leptin, adiponectin, omentin-1, visfatin) by altering lean-muscle mass/fat-mass ratio. However, there have only been a few studies assessing how AET could also be effective in managing adipokine concentrations. Therefore, the focus of this review is to build a comprehensive understanding of the benefits of AET’s influence on pro- and anti-inflammatory adipokine concentrations in obese males.
Copyright (c) 2025 Leroy Bolden, Tomas Chapman-Lopez, Dillon Harris, Olivia Russell, Katherine Lee, Mary Pickler, LesLee Funderburk, Andrew Gallucci https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effects of Pre-Run Walk Under Load on Reactive Strength Index, Running Economy, and Performance of Recreationally Competitive, Male Runners
Introduction: This study examined the effects of a low-impact external loading warm-up intervention (~25% body mass) on reactive strength index (RSI), running economy (RE), and run to exhaustion (RTE) performance. Methods: Thirteen recreationally competitive, middle-aged (38±11 years) male runners completed a familiarization session and two counterbalanced trials. Experimental trials began with the same 10-min self-selected warm-up followed by a 15-min treadmill walk (4.02 km/h) at multiple grades without (CON) or with a 19.2 kg weighted vest (VEST). Perceived readiness (PRS) was assessed post warm-up. Participants then completed three, 5-minute RE bouts at a fixed velocity of 11.3 km/h, and 80% and 90% of estimated 5-km race pace followed by a RTE. RSI tests were performed in triplicate before and after the VEST or CON walk and between each RE bout. Results: PRS (VEST = 76±14 vs CON = 70±14 mm; p = 0.18), heart rate, VO2, respiratory exchange ratio and metabolic cost did not differ (p > 0.05 at every pace). No treatment effect was found for RSI, but there was an effect for time due to a trend of post warm-up RSI favoring VEST. Finishing times for RTE did not differ (p = 0.69) between CON (510±158 s) and VEST (519±141 s). Conclusions: VEST failed to elicit statistical advantage in RSI, RE, or RTE in recreationally competitive male distance runners. However, examination of individual PRS and immediate post-warm-up RSI outcomes to RTE suggests positive responders are identifiable and may benefit from this novel, low-impact post-activation potentiation enhancement strategy.
Copyright (c) 2025 David A. Lara, Savanna N. Knight, Lynnsey R. Bowling, Trace Dominy, Hunter S. Waldman, Eric M. Scudamore, Thomas L. Andre, Eric K. O'Neal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Concerns over the Utility of Phase Angle and its Association with Muscle Function
Introduction: Phase angle (PhA) derived from bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has been used as an indicator of cellular hydration, muscle function, and nutritional status. Positive relationships between PhA and various measures of muscle function have been reported but it remains unclear whether PhA retains its predictive utility of muscle function, or whether it performs better than fat-free mass (FFM) in the context of muscle function. Methods: This perspective highlights secondary analyses of data collected during a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that examined indices of recovery with different whey protein supplements after muscle-damaging exercise among resistance-trained adults. Results: Bivariate correlations between phase angle and quadriceps twitch force were positively correlated at baseline, 24-h, and 72-h post-exercise. In linear regression, FFM was shown to account for nearly 44% (partial r = 0.662) of the variance in quadriceps twitch force independent of phase angle at 24-h. A similar pattern emerged at 48-h and 72-h post-exercise Conclusions: Within this framework, these data demonstrate that: 1) PhA exhibits a weaker correlation to quadriceps twitch force compared to FFM and 2) in the context of muscle function, PhA does not provide additional information beyond that of FFM alone. Investigators should consider adjusting for FFM when evaluating the relationship between PhA and muscle function outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2024 Matthew J. Barenie, Albaro Escalera, Hope E. Grange, Zachary J. Schlader, Alyce D. Fly, Timothy D. Mickleborough, Stephen J. Carter https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Deception of Heart Rate is Unable to Improve Functional Threshold Power in Cyclists
Introduction: Studies investigating the effects of deception on endurance performance have been somewhat inconclusive. The purpose of this study was to explore the use of biofeedback deception of heart rate (HR) in an attempt to improve athletic performance. Methods: Thirteen individuals (10 men, mean±SD age 29.4±10.2 years) completed two 20-minute functional threshold power (FTP) cycling tests. In the control (CON) condition, their correct HR was displayed, while in the deception (DEC) condition an incorrect HR was displayed (correct HR – 10 bpm). Paired samples t-tests were used to compare cycling variables such as power output, speed and work between conditions. Actual HR was analyzed using 2 (condition) x 10 (time; every two minutes) repeated-measures ANOVAs. Results: Mean power output in the CON condition was 226.7±69.3 W and 222.6±65.4 W in the DEC condition (p>.05). The total amount of work performed was nearly identical between conditions (CON: 709.2± J, DEC: 709.3± J; p>.05). There were no differences in actual HR between conditions (all p>.05). Conclusions: Biofeedback deception of HR was unable to improve performance. Verbal encouragement may be a moderating variable that allows successful deception to occur. Possible future studies are presented that will allow further testing of this hypothesis.
Copyright (c) 2024 Nicholas Hanson, Sangwoo Lee https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Machine Resistance Curve Analysis of Seven Resistance Training Machines
Introduction: Resistance training (RT) is not only feasible but also widely recommended across a spectrum of chronic disease contexts as well as for those with functional limitations. Many RT machines incorporate mechanisms that alter the machine’s resistance curve (MRC) in an attempt to match the variable strength of the participant through a resisted ROM (RROM). Several investigations have tested this relationship using weight selections greater than what might be appropriate for targeting low to moderate training intensities. This article presents an analysis of low to moderate RT selections offered by seven RT machines. Methods: An evaluation of the MRCs of seven RT machines was performed. Three leg extension machines, two chest press machines, and two seated row machines were selected for analysis from three fitness centers in Baltimore, MD and Oklahoma City, OK. The method of analysis is described. The acquired force data were normalized and plotted in order to categorize the MRCs of each machine. Results: Four of the seven machines offered more than one MRC based on the weight selected. Conclusions: The selection of resistance on an individual machine might influence targeted factors such as participant effort or achievable RROM.
Copyright (c) 2024 Charles McMillin, Bridget Melton, Nicholas Murray, Chris D'Adamo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association (CSCCa) 2023 Salary Survey
The Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association (CSCCa) surveyed its members of collegiate strength and conditioning coaches to identify potential salary disparities in the field. The survey aimed to help coaches evaluate their roles and improve their competitive salary standing in across athletic departments nationwide. The findings are fundamental for athletic departments to assess their positioning and ensure legal compliance with compensation laws and to adequately pay employees that robustly contribute to student-athlete mental and physical wellbeing. The results highlight the evolving role of strength coaches, extending to nutrition and athlete wellbeing, and informs salary decisions, aligning with market trends. The survey underscores the need for equitable compensation standards and ongoing industry engagement to advance the profession.
Copyright (c) 2024 Clare Quebedeaux, Greg Adamson, Jeanne Rankin, John E. Spurlock, Gabriel J. Sanders, Corey A. Peacock, Sandy Abney https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Does the Protein Concentration of Different Types of Dietary Supplements for Athletes Vary According to Protein Particle Length?
Introduction: Protein microparticles are crucial for their sensory properties and applicability in food production. This study has the objective of correlating protein particle length and content in different sources of protein supplements. Methods: An analytical observational study with protein supplements (n=30) from different sources was carried out to estimate the protein content and the particle length in the samples. Protein content data was obtained via total nitrogen content. The samples were also analyzed for protein particle lengths using the scanning electron microscope. Results: The comparison between the average particle length of each group of protein supplements analyzed has shown significant statistical difference (F=139.6; p<0.001). Whey Protein Isolate showed higher particle length, compared to other supplements (57.7±42.1 µm; p<0.001). However, no evidence of a significant difference in protein concentrations among supplements was detected (F=1.072; p=0.4004). In addition, no evidence of a significant correlation between protein concentration and particle length was observed (R2=0.001; p=0.8476). Conclusions: Although a difference in the protein particle length of different supplements for athletes was found, there is no correlation between protein concentration and particle length in the studied protein supplements from different sources Whey Protein Concentrate, Whey Protein Isolate, Blend Whey Protein, Veggies, Beef and Albumin.
Copyright (c) 2024 Juliana Vaccaro, Giuseppe Stefani, Leonardo dos Santos, Alessandra Pizzato https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Consuming Caffeinated or Non-Caffeinated Energy Shots has No Effect on Mood or Performance
Introduction: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of two different energy drinks on mood as well as mental and physical performance. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled investigation, subjects (n=60, 22 male, 38 female) were assigned to a caffeinated energy shot (Alpha Brain), a non-caffeinated energy shot (Ginger Rescue), or a placebo with no caffeine. Subjects were pre-tested on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), which is a measure of sustained attention, Profile of Mood States, and handgrip strength. Consequently, they consumed either the Alpha Brain shot, Ginger Rescue shot, or the placebo. One hour post-consumption, the assessments were repeated. Results: There were no between-group differences (p>0.05) for any of the assessments regarding the change score (M±SD): PVT – Alpha Brain -3±15 msec, Ginger Rescue -21±60 msec, Placebo 1±21 msec; Total mood disturbance score – Alpha Brain -7.0±14.5, Ginger Rescue -4.1±11.1, Placebo -0.7±8.5; Peak handgrip – Alpha Brain 0.3±3.5 kg, Ginger Rescue 0.3±4.5 kg, Placebo -0.6±3.1 kg. Conclusions: The acute consumption of an energy shot, regardless of whether it is caffeinated, did not affect mood, handgrip strength, or sustained attention.
nootropic, supplement, attention, vigilance
Copyright (c) 2024 Jose Antonio, Tobin Silver, Peter Byers, Lia Jiannine https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Influence of a Supervised and Unsupervised Strength and Conditioning Program for Elite Adolescent Freestyle Swimmers
Introduction: Adolescent high school swimmers, aged 13-16 years, are an athletic population that can benefit from a strength and conditioning (S&C) program which caters for their developmental and sports-specific needs. The aim of this case study was to analyze the adherence to and subsequent effect of a short-term (12-week) combined supervised and unsupervised S&C program in elite adolescent swimmers during a competitive season. Methods: Seven elite adolescent swimmers (4 females, 3 males) completed the study (age: 15.2 ± 0.5 years; mass: 64.5 ± 5.1 kg; stature: 1.76 ± 0.07 m). The participants were required to adhere to one supervised S&C session and two unsupervised S&C sessions per week that were performed on non-consecutive days while maintaining their traditional swimming training schedules. The unsupervised component was delivered digitally with participant feedback monitored. The S&C program consisted of upper- and lower limbs exercises with low loads and low volume as well as bodyweight exercise. Adherence to both programs was measured by attendance with correlational analysis conducted from total S&C program adherence to swim performance. The effect of the S&C training protocol was assessed using performance time pre and post the S&C intervention during the 50-m freestyle swim. Results: The S&C training program intervention resulted in significant improvements in the 50-m freestyle swim (p < 0.001, d = >1). Total adherence to the supervised and unsupervised parts of the S&C program was 88% while adherence to the digital only component was 76%. Although a correlation was observed between total adherence to the combined supervised and unsupervised S&C program (r = 0.8, p = 0.0243) and improved 50 m freestyle swim performance, this was not the case when the unsupervised component was compared to swim time performance (r = 0.4, p = 0.679). Conclusions: This case study demonstrated that a 12-week S&C intervention has a positive effect on elite adolescents’ 50 m freestyle swim performance. Furthermore, swim performance was improved when participant adherence to both formats of the S&C program were met. This study supports the development of S&C interventions to develop these correlates and increase adherence.
Copyright (c) 2023 Stuart Evans, Daniel Gahreman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0